Beginner's Guide to Ducted Heating Setup

In the United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute, a trade association, in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment.^[1] A similar standard is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER).

The SEER rating of a unit is the cooling output during a typical cooling-season divided by the total electric energy input during the same period. The higher the unit's SEER rating the more energy efficient it is. In the U.S., the SEER is the ratio of cooling in British thermal units (BTUs) to the energy consumed in watt-hours.

For example, consider a 5000 BTU/h (1465-watt cooling capacity) air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10 BTU/(W·h), operating for a total of 1000 hours during an annual cooling season (e.g., 8 hours per day for 125 days).

The annual total cooling output would be:

5000 BTU/h × 8 h/day × 125 days/year = 5,000,000 BTU/year

With a SEER of 10 BTU/(W·h), the annual electrical energy usage would be about:

5,000,000 BTU/year ÷ 10 BTU/(W·h) = 500,000 W·h/year

The average power usage may also be calculated more simply by:

Average power = (BTU/h) ÷ (SEER) = 5000 ÷ 10 = 500 W = 0.5 kW

If the electricity cost is $0.20/(kW·h), then the cost per operating hour is:

0.5 kW × $0.20/(kW·h) = $0.10/h

The energy efficiency ratio (EER) of a particular cooling device is the ratio of output cooling energy (in BTUs) to input electrical energy (in watt-hours) at a given operating point. EER is generally calculated using a 95 °F (35 °C) outside temperature and an inside (actually return-air) temperature of 80 °F (27 °C) and 50% relative humidity.

The EER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics, with the primary difference being that the COP of a cooling device is unit-less, because the numerator and denominator are expressed in the same units. The EER uses mixed units, so it does not have an immediate physical sense and is obtained by multiplying the COP by the conversion factor from BTUs to watt-hours: EER = 3.41214 × COP (see British thermal unit).

The seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) is also the COP (or EER) expressed in BTU/watt-hour, but instead of being evaluated at a single operating condition, it represents the expected overall performance for a typical year's weather in a given location. The SEER is thus calculated with the same indoor temperature, but over a range of outside temperatures from 65 °F (18 °C) to 104 °F (40 °C), with a certain specified percentage of time in each of 8 bins spanning 5 °F (2.8 °C). There is no allowance for different climates in this rating, which is intended to give an indication of how the EER is affected by a range of outside temperatures over the course of a cooling season.

Typical EER for residential central cooling units = 0.875 × SEER. SEER is a higher value than EER for the same equipment.^[1]

A more detailed method for converting SEER to EER uses this formula:

EER = −0.02 × SEER² + 1.12 × SEER^[2] Note that this method is used for benchmark modeling only and is not appropriate for all climate conditions.^[2]

A SEER of 13 is approximately equivalent to an EER of 11, and a COP of 3.2, which means that 3.2 units of heat are removed from indoors per unit of energy used to run the air conditioner.

The SEER and EER of an air conditioner are limited by the laws of thermodynamics. The refrigeration process with the maximum possible efficiency is the Carnot cycle. The COP of an air conditioner using the Carnot cycle is:

$\displaystyle COP_Carnot=\frac T_CT_H-T_C$

where $\displaystyle T_C$ is the indoor temperature and $\displaystyle T_H$ is the outdoor temperature. Both temperatures must be measured using a thermodynamic temperature scale based at absolute zero such as Kelvin or Rankine. The EER is calculated by multiplying the COP by 3.412 BTU/W⋅h as described above:

$\displaystyle EER_Carnot=3.412\frac T_CT_H-T_C$

Assuming an outdoor temperature of 95 °F (35 °C) and an indoor temperature of 80 °F (27 °C), the above equation gives (when temperatures are converted to the Kelvin or Rankine scales) a COP of 36, or an EER of 120. This is about 10 times more efficient than a typical home air conditioner available today.

The maximum EER decreases as the difference between the inside and outside air temperature increases, and vice versa. In a desert climate where the outdoor temperature is 120 °F (49 °C), the maximum COP drops to 13, or an EER of 46 (for an indoor temperature of 80 °F (27 °C)).

The maximum SEER can be calculated by averaging the maximum EER over the range of expected temperatures for the season.

This section contains instructions or advice. Wikipedia is not a guidebook; please help rewrite the content to make it more encyclopedic or move it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks, or Wikivoyage. (October 2011)

SEER rating reflects overall system efficiency on a seasonal basis and EER reflects the system's energy efficiency at one specific operating condition. Both ratings are useful when choosing products, but the same rating must be used for comparisons.

Substantial energy savings can be obtained from more efficient systems. For example, by upgrading from SEER 9 to SEER 13, the power consumption is reduced by 30% (equal to 1 − 9/13).

With existing units that are still functional and well-maintained, when the time value of money is considered, retaining existing units rather than proactively replacing them may be the most cost effective. However, the efficiency of air conditioners can degrade significantly over time.^[3]

But when either replacing equipment, or specifying new installations, a variety of SEERs are available. For most applications, the minimum or near-minimum SEER units are most cost effective, but the longer the cooling seasons, the higher the electricity costs, and the longer the purchasers will own the systems, the more that incrementally higher SEER units are justified. Residential split-system AC units of SEER 20 or more are now available. The higher SEER units typically have larger coils and multiple compressors, with some also having variable refrigerant flow and variable supply air flow.

In 1987 legislation taking effect in 1992 was passed requiring a minimum SEER rating of 10.^[4] It is rare to see systems rated below SEER 9 in the United States because aging, existing units are being replaced with new, higher efficiency units.

Beginning in January 2006 a minimum SEER 13 was required.^[5] The United States requires that residential systems manufactured after 2005 have a minimum SEER rating of 13. ENERGY STAR qualified Central Air Conditioners must have a SEER of at least 14.5. Window units are exempt from this law so their SEERs are still around 10.

In 2011 the US Department of Energy (DOE) revised energy conservation rules to impose elevated minimum standards and regional standards for residential HVAC systems.^[6] The regional approach recognizes the differences in cost-optimization resulting from regional climate differences. For example, there is little cost benefit in having a very high SEER air conditioning unit in Maine, a state in the northeast US.

Starting January 1, 2015, split-system central air conditioners installed in the Southeastern Region of the United States of America must be at least 14 SEER. The Southeastern Region includes Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Similarly, split-system central air conditioners installed in the Southwestern Region must be a minimum 14 SEER and 12.2 EER beginning on January 1, 2015. The Southwestern Region consists of Arizona, California, Nevada, and New Mexico. Split-system central air conditioners installed in all other states outside the Southeastern and Southwestern regions must continue to be a minimum of 13 SEER, which is the current national requirement.^[6]

There have been many new advances in efficient technology over the past 10 years which have enabled manufacturers to increase their SEER ratings dramatically in order to stay above the required minimums set by the United States department of energy.^{[citation needed]}

Effective January 1, 2023, cooling products will be subject to regional minimum efficiencies, according to Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio 2 (SEER2). New M1 testing procedure^[7] is designed to better reflect current field conditions. DOE increases systems' external static pressure from current SEER (0.1 in. of water) to SEER2 (0.5 in. of water). These pressure conditions were devised to consider ducted systems that would be seen in the field. With this change, new nomenclature will be used to denote M1 ratings (including EER2 and HSPF2).^[8]

New Minimum with M1 Ratings^[9]

Split System	Region
	North	Southwest	Southeast
AC < 45000 BTU/h	13.4 SEER2	14.3 SEER2 / 11.7 EER2	14.3 SEER2
AC ≥ 45000 BTU/h		13.8 SEER2 / 11.2 EER2	13.8 SEER2

Electric power is usually measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kW·h). For example, if an electric load that draws 1.5 kW of electric power is operated for 8 hours, it uses 12 kW·h of electric energy. In the United States, a residential electric customer is charged based on the amount of electric energy used. On the customer bill, the electric utility states the amount of electric energy, in kilowatt-hours (kW·h), that the customer used since the last bill, and the cost of the energy per kilowatt-hour (kW·h).

Air-conditioner sizes are often given as "tons" of cooling, where 1 ton of cooling equals 12,000 BTU/h (3.5 kW). 1 ton of cooling equals the amount of power that needs to be applied continuously over a 24-hour period to melt 1 ton of ice.

The annual cost of electric energy consumed by an air conditioner may be calculated as follows:

(Cost, $/year) = (unit size, BTU/h) × (hours per year, h) × (energy cost, $/kW·h) ÷ (SEER, BTU/W·h) ÷ (1000, W/kW)

Example 1:

An air-conditioning unit rated at 72,000 BTU/h (21 kW) (6 tons), with a SEER rating of 10, operates 1000 hours per year at an electric energy cost of $0.12 per kilowatt-hour (kW·h). What is the annual cost of the electric energy it uses?

(72,000 BTU/h) × (1000 h/year) × ($0.12/kW·h) ÷ (10 BTU/W·h) ÷ (1000 W/kW) = $860/year

Example 2.

A residence near Chicago has an air conditioner with a cooling capacity of 4 tons and an SEER rating of 10. The unit is operated 120 days each year for 8 hours per day (960 hours per year), and the electric energy cost is $0.10 per kilowatt-hour. What is its annual cost of operation in terms of electric energy? First, we convert tons of cooling to BTU/h:

(4 tons) × (12,000 (BTU/h)/ton) = 48,000 BTU/h.

The annual cost of the electric energy is:

(48,000 BTU/h) × (960 h/year) × ($0.10/kW·h) ÷ (10 BTU/W·h) ÷ (1000 W/kW) = $460/year

Today there are mini-split (ductless) air conditioner units available with SEER ratings up to 42.^[10][11] During the 2014 AHR Expo, Mitsubishi unveiled a new mini-split ductless AC unit with a SEER rating of 30.5.^[12] GREE also released a 30.5 SEER rating mini split in 2015 as well.^[13] Carrier launched a 42 SEER ductless air conditioner during 2018 Consumer electronic Show (CES), held in Las Vegas.^[14] Traditional AC systems with ducts have maximum SEER ratings slightly below these levels. Also, practically, central systems will have an achieved energy efficiency ratio 10–20% lower than the nameplate rating due to the duct-related losses.

Additionally, there are ground-source residential AC units with SEER ratings up to 75.^[15] However, ground-source heat pump effective efficiency is reliant on the temperature of the ground or water source used. Hot climates have a much higher ground or surface water temperature than cold climates and therefore will not be able to achieve such efficiencies. Moreover, the ARI rating scheme for ground-source heat pumps allows them to largely ignore required pump power in their ratings, making the achievable SEER values often practically lower than the highest efficiency air-source equipment—particularly for air cooling. There are a variety of technologies that will allow SEER and EER ratings to increase further in the near future.^[16] Some of these technologies include rotary compressors, inverters, DC brushless motors, variable-speed drives, and integrated systems such as those found in solar-powered air conditioning.^[16]

A refrigeration cycle can be operated as a heat pump to move heat from outdoors into a warmer house. A heat pump with a higher SEER rating for cooling mode would also usually be more efficient in heating mode, rated using HSPF. When operated in heating mode, a heat pump is typically more efficient than an electrical resistance heater. This is because a space heater can convert only the input electrical energy directly to output heat energy, while a heat pump transfers heat from outdoors. In heating mode, the coefficient of performance is the ratio of heat provided to the energy used by the unit. An ideal resistance heater converting 100% of its input electricity to output heat would have COP = 1, equivalent to a 3.4 EER. The heat pump becomes less efficient as the outside temperature decreases, and its performance may become comparable to a resistance heater. For a heat pump with the minimum 13 SEER cooling efficiency, this is typically below −10 °F (−23 °C).^[17]

Lower temperatures may cause a heat pump to operate below the efficiency of a resistance heater, so conventional heat pumps often include heater coils or auxiliary heating from LP or natural gas to prevent low efficiency operation of the refrigeration cycle. "Cold climate" heat pumps are designed to optimize efficiency below 0 °F (−18 °C). As of 2023 heat pumps are marketed that will extract heat from outdoor temperatures as low as −40 °F (−40 °C). In the case of cold climates, water or ground-source heat pumps are often the most efficient solution. They use the relatively constant temperature of ground water or of water in a large buried loop to moderate the temperature differences in summer and winter and improve performance year round. The heat pump cycle is reversed in the summer to act as an air conditioner.

• Air conditioner
• Air conditioning
• Annual fuel use efficiency (AFUE)
• Coefficient of performance
• Energy star
• Heat pump
• HSPF
• HVAC
• Thermal efficiency

• A new measure for the energy efficiency of heating and cooling devices – Information from Daikin on seasonal efficiency
• Climate Impacts on Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) and Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) for Air Source Heat Pumps

 

 

Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C (US) or air con (UK),^[1] is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature and, in some cases, controlling the humidity of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or through other methods, such as passive cooling and ventilative cooling.^[2][3] Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).^[4] Heat pumps are similar in many ways to air conditioners but use a reversing valve, allowing them to both heat and cool an enclosed space.^[5]

Air conditioners, which typically use vapor-compression refrigeration, range in size from small units used in vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings.^[6] Air source heat pumps, which can be used for heating as well as cooling, are becoming increasingly common in cooler climates. Air conditioners can reduce mortality rates due to higher temperature.^[7] According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used globally in 2016.^[8] The United Nations has called for the technology to be made more sustainable to mitigate climate change and for the use of alternatives, like passive cooling, evaporative cooling, selective shading, windcatchers, and thermal insulation.

Air conditioning dates back to prehistory.^[9] Double-walled living quarters, with a gap between the two walls to encourage air flow, were found in the ancient city of Hamoukar, in modern Syria.^[10] Ancient Egyptian buildings also used a wide variety of passive air-conditioning techniques.^[11] These became widespread from the Iberian Peninsula through North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern India.^[12]

Passive techniques remained widespread until the 20th century when they fell out of fashion and were replaced by powered air conditioning. Using information from engineering studies of traditional buildings, passive techniques are being revived and modified for 21st-century architectural designs.^[13][12]

Air conditioners allow the building's indoor environment to remain relatively constant, largely independent of changes in external weather conditions and internal heat loads. They also enable deep plan buildings to be created and have allowed people to live comfortably in hotter parts of the world.^[14]

In 1558, Giambattista della Porta described a method of chilling ice to temperatures far below its freezing point by mixing it with potassium nitrate (then called "nitre") in his popular science book Natural Magic.^[15][16][17] In 1620, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England, chilling part of the Great Hall of Westminster Abbey with an apparatus of troughs and vats.^[18] Drebbel's contemporary Francis Bacon, like della Porta a believer in science communication, may not have been present at the demonstration, but in a book published later the same year, he described it as "experiment of artificial freezing" and said that "Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies the cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold of the snow."^[15]

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at the University of Cambridge, conducted experiments applying the principle of evaporation as a means to cool an object rapidly. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that the evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They experimented with the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer as their object. They used a bellows to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (1⁄4 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."^[19]

The 19th century included many developments in compression technology. In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.^[20] In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings.^[20][21] He envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851,^[22] but following the death of his main backer, he was not able to realize his invention.^[23] In 1851, James Harrison created the first mechanical ice-making machine in Geelong, Australia, and was granted a patent for an ether vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1855 that produced three tons of ice per day.^[24] In 1860, Harrison established a second ice company. He later entered the debate over competing against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom.^[24]

Electricity made the development of effective units possible. In 1901, American inventor Willis H. Carrier built what is considered the first modern electrical air conditioning unit.^{[25][26][27][28]} In 1902, he installed his first air-conditioning system in the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing & Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York.^[29] He patented "air conditioning" in 1906,^[30] and by 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed.^[20] His invention controlled both the temperature and humidity, which helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment at the printing plant. Later, together with six other employees, Carrier formed The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America, a business that in 2020, employed 53,000 people and was valued at $18.6 billion.^[31][32]

In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina, was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning" in a patent claim which he filed that year, where he suggested that air conditioning was analogous to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process.^[33] He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, thus controlling the humidity that is necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.^[34]

Domestic air conditioning soon took off. In 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed in Minneapolis in the home of Charles Gilbert Gates. It is, however, possible that the considerable device (c. 2.1 m × 1.8 m × 6.1 m; 7 ft × 6 ft × 20 ft) was never used, as the house remained uninhabited^[20] (Gates had already died in October 1913.)

In 1931, H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman developed what would become the most common type of individual room air conditioner: one designed to sit on a window ledge. The units went on sale in 1932 at US$10,000 to $50,000 (the equivalent of $200,000 to $1,200,000 in 2024.)^[20] A year later, the first air conditioning systems for cars were offered for sale.^[35] Chrysler Motors introduced the first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit in 1935,^[36] and Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars in 1939.^[37]

Innovations in the latter half of the 20th century allowed more ubiquitous air conditioner use. In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts, invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.^[38] The first inverter air conditioners were released in 1980–1981.^[39][40]

In 1954, Ned Cole, a 1939 architecture graduate from the University of Texas at Austin, developed the first experimental "suburb" with inbuilt air conditioning in each house. 22 homes were developed on a flat, treeless track in northwest Austin, Texas, and the community was christened the 'Austin Air-Conditioned Village.' The residents were subjected to a year-long study of the effects of air conditioning led by the nation's premier air conditioning companies, builders, and social scientists. In addition, researchers from UT's Health Service and Psychology Department studied the effects on the "artificially cooled humans." One of the more amusing discoveries was that each family reported being troubled with scorpions, the leading theory being that scorpions sought cool, shady places. Other reported changes in lifestyle were that mothers baked more, families ate heavier foods, and they were more apt to choose hot drinks.^[41][42]

Air conditioner adoption tends to increase above around $10,000 (circa 2021) annual household income in warmer areas.^[43] Global GDP growth explains around 85% of increased air condition adoption by 2050, while the remaining 15% can be explained by climate change.^[43]

The urban heat island effect was first scientifically noted by Luke Howard in the 1810s, who described London being several degrees warmer than its rural surroundings at night. The phenomenon gained attention in the late 1960s, mainly in Japan and North America.^[44][45]

From the late 1980s to early 2010s, studies began to link air conditioners to the urban heat island effect.^[46][47][48] The phenomenon was observed in various cities such as Tokyo and Houston.

As of 2016^[update], an estimated 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used worldwide, with over half of them in China and the United States, and with a total cooling capacity of 11,675 gigawatts.^[49] The International Energy Agency predicted in 2018 that the number of air conditioning units would grow to around 4 billion units by 2050 and that the total cooling capacity would grow to around 23,000 GW, with the biggest increases in India and China.^[8]

Between 1995 and 2004, the proportion of urban households in China with air conditioners increased from 8% to 70%.^[50] Between 2010 and 2023, air conditioner use in India tripled to 24 units per 100 households,^[51] with the most ownership in Haryana, Chandigarh, Rajasthan, and Delhi and the least in Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, and Himachal Pradesh.^[52]

As of 2015^[update], nearly 100 million homes in the United States, or about 87% of US households, had air conditioning systems.^[53] In 2019, it was estimated that 90% of new single-family homes constructed in the US included air conditioning, ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West.^[54][55]

As of 2025^[update], roughly half of homes in Italy, 40 percent of homes in Spain, and 20 to 25 percent of homes in France had air conditioning.^[56]

Cooling in traditional air conditioner systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses a refrigerant's forced circulation and phase change between gas and liquid to transfer heat.^[57][58] The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment, or within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a fan coil unit in an air handler) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment such as a cooling tower on its condenser side. An air source heat pump shares many components with an air conditioning system, but includes a reversing valve, which allows the unit to be used to heat as well as cool a space.^[59]

Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dew point of the surrounding air. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space will typically achieve a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.^[60]

Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs. At the same time, the fan is slowed to reduce the evaporator temperature and condense more water. A dehumidifier uses the same refrigeration cycle but incorporates both the evaporator and the condenser into the same air path; the air first passes over the evaporator coil, where it is cooled^[61] and dehumidified, before passing over the condenser coil, where it is warmed again before it is released back into the room.^{[citation needed]}

Free cooling can sometimes be selected when the external air is cooler than the internal air. In this case, the compressor does not need to be used, resulting in high cooling efficiencies for these times. This may also be combined with seasonal thermal energy storage.^[62]

Some air conditioning systems can reverse the refrigeration cycle and act as an air source heat pump, thus heating instead of cooling the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as "reverse cycle air conditioners". The heat pump is significantly more energy-efficient than electric resistance heating, because it moves energy from air or groundwater to the heated space and the heat from purchased electrical energy. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

Most air source heat pumps become less efficient in outdoor temperatures lower than 4 °C or 40 °F.^[63] This is partly because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to the condenser coil, to heat up and defrost. Therefore, some heat pump systems will have electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

Newer models have improved cold-weather performance, with efficient heating capacity down to −14 °F (−26 °C).^[64][63][65] However, there is always a chance that the humidity that condenses on the heat exchanger of the outdoor unit could freeze, even in models that have improved cold-weather performance, requiring a defrosting cycle to be performed.

The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are sometimes installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as an electrical heater, a natural gas, heating oil, or wood-burning fireplace or central heating, which is used instead of or in addition to the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

The coefficient of performance (COP) of an air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to the work required.^[66][67] Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1; however, the exact value is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.^[68] Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration", with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2,000 pounds (910 kg) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is equal to 12,000 BTU_IT per hour, or 3,517 watts.^[69] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.^{[citation needed]}

The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment.^[70] A similar standard is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER).^{[citation needed]}

Efficiency is strongly affected by the humidity of the air to be cooled. Dehumidifying the air before attempting to cool it can reduce subsequent cooling costs by as much as 90 percent. Thus, reducing dehumidifying costs can materially affect overall air conditioning costs.^[71]

This type of controller uses an infrared LED to relay commands from a remote control to the air conditioner. The output of the infrared LED (like that of any infrared remote) is invisible to the human eye because its wavelength is beyond the range of visible light (940 nm). This system is commonly used on mini-split air conditioners because it is simple and portable. Some window and ducted central air conditioners uses it as well.

A wired controller, also called a "wired thermostat," is a device that controls an air conditioner by switching heating or cooling on or off. It uses different sensors to measure temperatures and actuate control operations. Mechanical thermostats commonly use bimetallic strips, converting a temperature change into mechanical displacement, to actuate control of the air conditioner. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor sensor, processing temperature change as electronic signals to control the air conditioner.

These controllers are usually used in apartments, hospitals, offices and hotel rooms, because they are permanently installed into a wall and hard-wired directly into the air conditioner unit, eliminating the need for batteries.

Types	Typical Capacity*	Air supply	Mounting	Typical application
Mini-split	small – large	Direct	Wall	Residential
Window	very small – small	Direct	Window	Residential
Portable	very small – small	Direct / Ducted	Floor	Residential, remote areas
Ducted (individual)	small – very large	Ducted	Ceiling	Residential, commercial
Ducted (central)	medium – very large	Ducted	Ceiling	Residential, commercial
Ceiling suspended	medium – large	Direct	Ceiling	Commercial
Cassette	medium – large	Direct / Ducted	Ceiling	Commercial
Floor standing	medium – large	Direct / Ducted	Floor	Commercial
Packaged	very large	Direct / Ducted	Floor	Commercial
Packaged RTU (Rooftop Unit)	very large	Ducted	Rooftop	Commercial

* where the typical capacity is in kilowatt as follows:

• very small: <1.5 kW
• small: 1.5–3.5 kW
• medium: 4.2–7.1 kW
• large: 7.2–14 kW
• very large: >14 kW

Ductless systems (often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini-split) typically supply conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner.^[72] Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit.

The first mini-split system was sold in 1961 by Toshiba in Japan, and the first wall-mounted mini-split air conditioner was sold in 1968 in Japan by Mitsubishi Electric, where small home sizes motivated their development. The Mitsubishi model was the first air conditioner with a cross-flow fan.^[73][74][75] In 1969, the first mini-split air conditioner was sold in the US.^[76] Multi-zone ductless systems were invented by Daikin in 1973, and variable refrigerant flow systems (which can be thought of as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan.^[77] Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an air handler, eliminate the need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be conditioned, thus allowing for less space above dropped ceilings and a lower structural impact, while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces. The outdoor and indoor units can be spread across the building.^[78] Variable refrigerant flow indoor units can also be turned off individually in unused spaces.^{[citation needed]} The lower start-up power of VRF's DC inverter compressors and their inherent DC power requirements also allow VRF solar-powered heat pumps to be run using DC-providing solar panels.

Split-system central air conditioners consist of two heat exchangers, an outside unit (the condenser) from which heat is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the evaporator, or Fan Coil Unit, FCU) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by ventilation ducts.^[79] Floor standing air conditioners are similar to this type of air conditioner but sit within spaces that need cooling.

Large central cooling plants may use intermediate coolant such as chilled water pumped into air handlers or fan coil units near or in the spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done due to the low density and heat capacity of air, which would require impractically large ducts. The chilled water is cooled by chillers in the plant, which uses a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often transferring its heat to the atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of cooling towers. Chillers may be air- or liquid-cooled.^[80][81]

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a ductless split air conditioner).

Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water, discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. Many but not all portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct, negatively impacting their overall cooling efficiency.

Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as a dehumidification function.^[82]

The packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are similar. These units are installed on a window frame or on a wall opening. The unit usually has an internal partition separating its indoor and outdoor sides, which contain the unit's condenser and evaporator, respectively. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. They may be installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a custom grill.^[83]

Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units)^[84][85] are central systems that integrate into a single housing all the components of a split central system, and deliver air, possibly through ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors, on roofs (rooftop units),^[86][87] draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be water or air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-cooled using a cooling tower.^{[79][88][89][90][91][92]}

Compressor types	Common applications	Typical capacity	Efficiency	Durability	Repairability
Reciprocating	Refrigerator, Walk-in freezer, portable air conditioners	small – large	very low (small capacity) medium (large capacity)	very low	medium
Rotary vane	Residential mini splits	small	low	low	easy
Scroll	Commercial and central systems, VRF	medium	medium	medium	easy
Rotary screw	Commercial chiller	medium – large	medium	medium	hard
Centrifugal	Commercial chiller	very large	medium	high	hard
Maglev Centrifugal	Commercial chiller	very large	high	very high	very hard

This compressor consists of a crankcase, crankshaft, piston rod, piston, piston ring, cylinder head and valves. ^{[citation needed]}

This compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to compress the refrigerant.^[93] it consists of one fixed and one orbiting scrolls. This type of compressor is more efficient because it has 70 percent less moving parts than a reciprocating compressor. ^{[citation needed]}

This compressor use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress the gas. The gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is the compression. ^{[citation needed]}

There are several ways to modulate the cooling capacity in refrigeration or air conditioning and heating systems. The most common in air conditioning are: on-off cycling, hot gas bypass, use or not of liquid injection, manifold configurations of multiple compressors, mechanical modulation (also called digital), and inverter technology. ^{[citation needed]}

Hot gas bypass involves injecting a quantity of gas from discharge to the suction side. The compressor will keep operating at the same speed, but due to the bypass, the refrigerant mass flow circulating with the system is reduced, and thus the cooling capacity. This naturally causes the compressor to run uselessly during the periods when the bypass is operating. The turn down capacity varies between 0 and 100%.^[94]

Several compressors can be installed in the system to provide the peak cooling capacity. Each compressor can run or not in order to stage the cooling capacity of the unit. The turn down capacity is either 0/33/66 or 100% for a trio configuration and either 0/50 or 100% for a tandem.^{[citation needed]}

This internal mechanical capacity modulation is based on periodic compression process with a control valve, the two scroll set move apart stopping the compression for a given time period. This method varies refrigerant flow by changing the average time of compression, but not the actual speed of the motor. Despite an excellent turndown ratio – from 10 to 100% of the cooling capacity, mechanically modulated scrolls have high energy consumption as the motor continuously runs.^{[citation needed]}

This system uses a variable-frequency drive (also called an Inverter) to control the speed of the compressor. The refrigerant flow rate is changed by the change in the speed of the compressor. The turn down ratio depends on the system configuration and manufacturer. It modulates from 15 or 25% up to 100% at full capacity with a single inverter from 12 to 100% with a hybrid tandem. This method is the most efficient way to modulate an air conditioner's capacity. It is up to 58% more efficient than a fixed speed system.^{[citation needed]}

In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration due to excessive sweating, electrolyte imbalance, kidney failure, and other issues due to hyperthermia.^[8][95] Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States.^[96][97] A 2020 study found that areas with lower use of air conditioning correlated with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.^[98] The August 2003 France heatwave resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, where 80% of the victims were over 75 years old. In response, the French government required all retirement homes to have at least one air-conditioned room at 25 °C (77 °F) per floor during heatwaves.^[8]

A 2021 report estimated that around 345,000 people aged 65 and older died in 2019 from the heat, which is preventable with air conditioning. An estimated 190,000 heat-related deaths are averted annually owing to air conditioning.^[99][100]

Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with allergies, especially mold.^[101][102] However, poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. The state of New York has codified requirements for registration, maintenance, and testing of cooling towers to protect against Legionella.^[103]

First designed to benefit targeted industries such as the press as well as large factories, the invention quickly spread to public agencies and administrations with studies with claims of increased productivity close to 24% in places equipped with air conditioning.^[104]

Air conditioning contributed to the economic development of the American South after the 1950s by enabling industrial activities in hot climates and supporting the expansion of white-collar work in cooled office spaces. It also influenced urban sprawl and commuting patterns, as air-conditioned vehicles made suburban development more viable. Historians rank air conditioning among key factors shaping postwar metropolitan growth, alongside highways, automobiles, shopping malls, and suburban housing. ^[105]

Air conditioning caused various shifts in demography, notably that of the United States starting from the 1970s. In the US, the birth rate was lower in the spring than during other seasons until the 1970s but this difference then declined since then.^[106] As of 2007^[update], the Sun Belt contained 30% of the total US population while it was inhabited by 24% of Americans at the beginning of the 20th century.^[107] Moreover, the summer mortality rate in the US, which had been higher in regions subject to a heat wave during the summer, also evened out.^[7]

The spread of the use of air conditioning acts as a main driver for the growth of global demand of electricity.^[108] According to a 2018 report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), it was revealed that the energy consumption for cooling in the United States, involving 328 million Americans, surpasses the combined energy consumption of 4.4 billion people in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia (excluding China).^[8] A 2020 survey found that an estimated 88% of all US households use AC, increasing to 93% when solely looking at homes built between 2010 and 2020.^[109]

Air conditioning used about 7% of global electricity in 2022, and emitted 3% of greenhouse gas.^[110] A 2018 report on air conditioning efficiency by the International Energy Agency predicted an increase of electricity usage due to space cooling to around 6200 TWh by 2050,^[8][111] and that with the progress currently seen, greenhouse gas emissions attributable to space cooling would double from 1,135 million tons (2016) to 2,070 million tons.^[8] There is some push to increase the energy efficiency of air conditioners. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the IEA found that if air conditioners could be twice as effective as now, 460 billion tons of GHG could be cut over 40 years.^[112] The UNEP and IEA also recommended legislation to decrease the use of hydrofluorocarbons, better building insulation, and more sustainable temperature-controlled food supply chains going forward.^[112]

Refrigerants have also caused and continue to cause serious environmental issues, including ozone depletion and climate change, as several countries have not yet ratified the Kigali Amendment to reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons.^[113] CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants such as R-12 and R-22, respectively, used within air conditioners have caused damage to the ozone layer,^[114] and hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants such as R-410A and R-404A, which were designed to replace CFCs and HCFCs, are instead exacerbating climate change.^[115] Both issues happen due to the venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere, such as during repairs. HFO refrigerants, used in some if not most new equipment, solve both issues with an ozone damage potential (ODP) of zero and a much lower global warming potential (GWP) in the single or double digits vs. the three or four digits of hydrofluorocarbons.^[116]

Hydrofluorocarbons would have raised global temperatures by around 0.3–0.5 °C (0.5–0.9 °F) by 2100 without the Kigali Amendment. With the Kigali Amendment, the increase of global temperatures by 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons is predicted to be around 0.06 °C (0.1 °F).^[117]

Air conditioning units also contribute to pollution as they are difficult to disassemble or repair. Separating metal and plastic at the end of a unit's life cycle is also costly and not practical, meaning units are frequently disposed of.^[100]

Several journalists say it is an air conditioning paradox that arises from the usage of air conditioners to adapt to the effects of climate change, leading to higher energy consumption and heat generation as a byproduct, thereby exacerbating the problem.^{[118][119][120]} The paradox is particularly concerning in emerging economies. While air conditioning has become a symbol of modernity and comfort, its widespread adoption could significantly increase global carbon emissions, undermining efforts to limit global warming.

Alternatives are currently being explored by governments and researchers, such as more energy-efficient systems, passive cooling techniques, and the development of low-GWP refrigerants. However, balancing the demand for cooling with the need to reduce carbon footprints remains a complex and pressing issue.^[121][119]

As renewable energy becomes cheaper^[122] and more popular, the energy source of air conditioners is shifting towards more renewable energy sources.^[119] This reduces the amount of carbon emissions resulting directly from generating electricity.

The danger of high-GWP refrigerants, such as HFCs, escaping into the atmosphere and trapping heat can be mitigated through development of low-GWP refrigerants.^[99]

Socioeconomic groups with a household income below around $10,000 (circa 2021) tend to have a low air conditioning adoption,^[43] which worsens heat-related mortality.^[7] The lack of cooling can be hazardous, as areas with lower use of air conditioning correlate with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.^[98] Premature mortality in NYC is projected to grow between 47% and 95% in 30 years, with lower-income and vulnerable populations most at risk.^[98] Studies on the correlation between heat-related mortality and hospitalizations and living in low socioeconomic locations can be traced in Phoenix, Arizona,^[123] Hong Kong,^[124] China,^[124] Japan,^[125] and Italy.^[126][127] Additionally, costs concerning health care can act as another barrier, as the lack of private health insurance during a 2009 heat wave in Australia, was associated with heat-related hospitalization.^[127]

Disparities in socioeconomic status and access to air conditioning are connected by some to institutionalized racism, which leads to the association of specific marginalized communities with lower economic status, poorer health, residing in hotter neighborhoods, engaging in physically demanding labor, and experiencing limited access to cooling technologies such as air conditioning.^[127] A study examining the US cities of Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, and Pittsburgh found that black households were half as likely to have central air conditioning units when compared to their white counterparts.^[128] Especially in cities, redlining and other historical practices mean that racial disparities are also played out in heat islands, increasing temperatures in certain parts of the city.^[127] This is due to heat-absorbing building materials and pavements and lack of vegetation and shade coverage.^[129] There have been initiatives that provide cooling solutions to low-income communities, such as public cooling spaces.^[8][129]

Cooling has allowed for growth of indoor home space and encouraged people, including children, to stay indoors more often.^[130] It has also created uniformity of different geographical areas and climate zones.^[131]

Alternatives to continual air conditioning include passive cooling, passive solar cooling, natural ventilation, operating shades to reduce solar gain, using trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce solar gain.^{[citation needed]}

Buildings designed with passive air conditioning are generally less expensive to construct and maintain than buildings with conventional HVAC systems with lower energy demands.^[132] While tens of air changes per hour, and cooling of tens of degrees, can be achieved with passive methods, site-specific microclimate must be taken into account, complicating building design.^[12]

Many techniques can be used to increase comfort and reduce the temperature in buildings. These include evaporative cooling, selective shading, wind, thermal convection, and heat storage.^[133]

Natural solutions do not require energy for cooling purposes, and are therefore a very attractive solution. Many ways to achieve this have been explored.

The structure of a building can help dissipate heat. For example, in Zimbabwe, Eastgate Development cut its energy use by 90% by utilizing termite mound inspired structures.^[119]

Coverage of windows can help reduce internal heat gain from sunlight. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that window awnings can lower internal heat gain from sunlight by up to 77%.^[119]

The coating of roofs have also seen great success. In the United States, painting roofs white has been shown to lower roof temperatures by as much as 30 °C. Meanwhile, in China, a project involving the installation of green roofs — roofs covered with vegetation — not only reduced the cooling demands of buildings, but also lowered the average land surface temperature in the area by 0.91 °C.^[119]

Planting trees can also help mitigate the heat island effect. A study in Europe discovered that tree cover can reduce land surface temperatures in cities by as much as 12 °C during the summer. In the United States, another study found that when tree cover reaches 40%, ground-level temperatures were lowered by nearly 6 °C.^[119]

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces reflect incoming solar radiation and heat back into outer space through the infrared window for cooling during the daytime. Daytime radiative cooling became possible with the ability to suppress solar heating using photonic structures, which emerged through a study by Raman et al. (2014).^[142] PDRCs can come in a variety of forms, including paint coatings and films, that are designed to be high in solar reflectance and thermal emittance.^[141][143]

PDRC applications on building roofs and envelopes have demonstrated significant decreases in energy consumption and costs.^[143] In suburban single-family residential areas, PDRC application on roofs can potentially lower energy costs by 26% to 46%.^[144] PDRCs are predicted to show a market size of ~$27 billion for indoor space cooling by 2025 and have undergone a surge in research and development since the 2010s.^[145][146]

Hand fans have existed since prehistory. Large human-powered fans built into buildings include the punkah.

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners.^{[147]: 99, 151, 233 } In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.^{[147]: 134, 151 }

In areas that are cold at night or in winter, heat storage is used. Heat may be stored in earth or masonry; air is drawn past the masonry to heat or cool it.^[13]

In areas that are below freezing at night in winter, snow and ice can be collected and stored in ice houses for later use in cooling.^[13] This technique is over 3,700 years old in the Middle East.^[148] Harvesting outdoor ice during winter and transporting and storing for use in summer was practiced by wealthy Europeans in the early 1600s,^[15] and became popular in Europe and the Americas towards the end of the 1600s.^[149] This practice was replaced by mechanical compression-cycle icemakers.

In dry, hot climates, the evaporative cooling effect may be used by placing water at the air intake, such that the draft draws air over water and then into the house. For this reason, it is sometimes said that the fountain, in the architecture of hot, arid climates, is like the fireplace in the architecture of cold climates.^[11] Evaporative cooling also makes the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.^[150]

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.^[151]

There is a longstanding political controversy about air conditioning, particularly in the nations of Europe, where the technology is relatively unadopted. The strongest opposition generally originates from environmentalists, European federalists, and left-wing parties, while supporters tend to be from the political right.^[152][153]

• Air filter
• Air purifier
• Cleanroom
• Crankcase heater
• Energy recovery ventilation
• Indoor air quality
• Particulates

• U.S. patent 808,897 Carrier's original patent
• U.S. patent 1,172,429
• U.S. patent 2,363,294
• Artificial Cold. Munn & Company. August 28, 1880.
• The Presidential Cold Air Machine. Munn & Company. August 6, 1881.
• Ductless Mini-Split Air Conditioners, US energy.gov